The Gospel of Luke stands as a cornerstone of Christian scripture, providing a detailed account of the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. As part of the synoptic gospels, alongside Matthew and Mark, it offers unique insights and perspectives, contributing significantly to the theological and historical understanding of early Christianity. Determining the precise date of its composition is a complex task that requires a meticulous examination of historical, textual, and scholarly evidence. This article explores the multifaceted approaches scholars have employed to ascertain when the Gospel of Luke was written, offering a comprehensive analysis of the data and arguments that shape current scholarly consensus.
The Author and Audience of Luke
Before delving into the dating of the Gospel, it is essential to consider its authorship and intended audience. The Gospel of Luke and its companion volume, the Acts of the Apostles, are traditionally attributed to Luke, a physician and companion of the Apostle Paul. This attribution is supported by early church tradition, as seen in the writings of early Christian fathers such as Irenaeus, Eusebius, and Jerome. Luke’s association with Paul is mentioned in Colossians 4:14, Philemon 1:24, and 2 Timothy 4:11, suggesting that he was a well-educated Gentile Christian with a keen interest in documenting the spread of the Christian faith.
The audience of the Gospel of Luke is primarily Gentile Christians, as indicated by the Gospel’s emphasis on universal salvation and its numerous explanations of Jewish customs and geographical details, which would be unnecessary for a Jewish audience familiar with these traditions. This Gentile orientation aligns with Luke’s portrayal of Jesus as the Savior of all humanity, emphasizing themes of inclusion and compassion.
Internal Evidence for Dating
The Gospel of Luke provides several internal clues that help in determining its date of composition. One significant piece of evidence is the prologue in Luke 1:1-4, where the author states that he has carefully investigated everything from the beginning and decided to write an orderly account. This implies that Luke had access to various sources, including earlier written accounts and oral traditions, which he used to compile his narrative.
The Relationship to Mark and Matthew
Scholarly consensus holds that the Gospel of Luke was written after the Gospel of Mark. This conclusion is based on the two-source hypothesis, which posits that both Matthew and Luke used Mark as a primary source, alongside a hypothetical collection of Jesus’ sayings known as “Q.” Since Mark is generally dated to around 65-70 CE, Luke must have been written after this period.
The dating of Matthew also influences the dating of Luke. If Matthew was composed around 80-90 CE, then Luke, which appears to rely on both Mark and possibly Matthew, would likely have been written shortly thereafter. However, the exact relationship between Matthew and Luke remains a subject of scholarly debate, with some proposing that they were composed independently, while others suggest that Luke may have been aware of Matthew’s Gospel.
The Destruction of Jerusalem
Another critical factor in dating the Gospel of Luke is its treatment of the destruction of Jerusalem, which occurred in 70 CE. In Luke 21:20-24, Jesus predicts the siege and destruction of Jerusalem, using vivid language that some scholars argue reflects knowledge of the actual events. This has led to the hypothesis that Luke was written after 70 CE, during a time when the memory of the destruction was still fresh.
However, this interpretation is not without contention. Some scholars argue that the language used in Luke 21 is apocalyptic and could be understood as a generic prediction rather than a detailed account of known events. Thus, while the destruction of Jerusalem is a significant consideration, it does not provide definitive evidence for dating the Gospel.
External Evidence and Early Christian Writings
In addition to internal evidence, external sources and early Christian writings also contribute to the dating of Luke. References to the Gospel in other early Christian texts help establish a timeframe for its composition.
References in Early Christian Literature
The earliest possible reference to the Gospel of Luke appears in the writings of the early church fathers. The first clear and explicit citation of Luke is found in the writings of Irenaeus, around 180 CE, in his work “Against Heresies.” Irenaeus refers to the fourfold Gospel and specifically mentions Luke as the author of one of these accounts. This indicates that the Gospel was widely recognized and accepted within the Christian community by the late 2nd century.
Earlier potential references include those in the works of Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 CE), who alludes to passages found in Luke, although he does not explicitly name the Gospel. Additionally, the Didache (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles), dated to the early 2nd century, contains phrases reminiscent of the synoptic tradition, suggesting that the Gospel of Luke was in circulation by this time.
The Muratorian Fragment
The Muratorian Fragment, a late 2nd-century document listing the canonical books accepted by the church, includes the Gospel of Luke. This fragment provides evidence that Luke was considered authoritative and canonical by the end of the 2nd century. Its inclusion in this early list supports the view that the Gospel was composed and had gained significant recognition well before the fragment’s composition.
Historical and Social Context
Understanding the historical and social context of the Gospel of Luke also sheds light on its possible date of composition. The Gospel reflects a period of transition and expansion in the early Christian movement, with a particular focus on outreach to Gentiles and the integration of diverse communities into the Christian faith.
Theological Themes and Community Concerns
The theological themes present in Luke, such as the universality of salvation, the role of the Holy Spirit, and the emphasis on prayer and social justice, suggest that the Gospel was written for a community facing specific challenges and concerns. These themes resonate with the situation of the early Christian communities in the late 1st century, as they navigated the complexities of maintaining their identity and faith in a predominantly Gentile environment.
Persecution and Roman Authority
The Gospel of Luke also reflects an awareness of Roman authority and the persecution faced by Christians. This is evident in passages such as Luke 21:12-19, where Jesus warns his followers of impending persecution. The depiction of Roman officials and centurions in a relatively positive light, as seen in the accounts of the centurion’s servant (Luke 7:1-10) and the centurion at the cross (Luke 23:47), may indicate an attempt to present Christianity in a way that would be less threatening to Roman authorities.
Comparative Analysis with Acts
The relationship between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles is another crucial aspect of determining the date of Luke. Acts is generally considered to have been written by the same author as Luke, serving as a continuation of the Gospel’s narrative. The dating of Acts, therefore, directly impacts the dating of Luke.
The Ending of Acts
One of the most debated points regarding the date of Acts is its abrupt ending. Acts concludes with Paul under house arrest in Rome, without mentioning his trial, release, or death. This has led some scholars to propose an early date for Acts, around 62-64 CE, arguing that the author concluded the narrative before these events transpired.
However, others argue that the ending of Acts is a literary choice rather than a chronological marker. The focus of Acts is on the spread of the Gospel and the establishment of the early church, and the author may have chosen to end with Paul in Rome to signify the fulfillment of Jesus’ commission to spread the Gospel “to the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8).
Post-Pauline Perspective
Acts also reflects a post-Pauline perspective, emphasizing the unity and continuity of the Christian message despite Paul’s contentious history. This suggests a later date, when the early Christian community was consolidating its identity and theology after Paul’s death. If Acts is dated to the late 1st century, around 80-90 CE, then the Gospel of Luke would likely have been written shortly before or around this period.
Conclusion
Taking into account the internal evidence from the Gospel itself, references in early Christian literature, historical and social context, and the comparative analysis with Acts, a reasoned estimate for the composition of the Gospel of Luke can be made. The most widely accepted scholarly consensus places the writing of Luke between 80 and 90 CE. This timeframe allows for the use of Mark as a source, reflects the knowledge of Jerusalem’s destruction, and fits within the broader context of early Christian writings and community developments.
While the precise date remains a topic of scholarly debate, the Gospel of Luke clearly emerged during a formative period for early Christianity, contributing to the theological foundation and narrative of the Christian faith. Its careful composition and detailed account continue to be invaluable resources for understanding the life and teachings of Jesus and the early Christian movement.